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This page is a repository for "Writing Tips of the Month", provided by the AIS Web & Communications Services Team and sent out to all AIS staff via email. Use these tips as reference tools whenever you have writing questions or concerns.
The word principle is always a noun, while principal can be either a noun or an adjective.
Two common definitions for principal are:
Principal (noun): the most important person in an organization.
e.g. "As the school principal, Mr. Miller was both feared and respected by all the students."
Principal (adjective): the first in importance, rank, value, etc.
e.g. "The Mona Lisa is the principal painting in the Louvre Museum."
e.g. "Wet roads and excessive speeds were the principal reasons for the car crash."
Principle, however, can only be used as a noun.
Principle (noun): a standard, rule, or moral guideline.
e.g. "Michael refused to take money for mowing their lawn as a matter of principle."
e.g. "Morals and principles are what separate man from the rest of the animal kingdom; and on some occasions, from each other."
First Person perspective is generally used to give a more personal, casual, and sometimes informal feel, such as in an online blog, an editorial, or an autobiography.
Second Person is told from the "you" viewpoint and is most often associated with literary works. It would be rare to find an entire novel written in this point of view, but it can be very effective in small doses, such as in a prologue or in italicized scenes interspersed throughout a first or third person text.
Third Person is widely used in the writing of technical and scientific authors to give a more detached, official, authoritative tone. It is also widely used by fiction writers, giving them the ability to show their readers different perspectives as they move through the story. Some people have been taught to always use third person in their writing, and never use first person at all. The idea behind this is that the author should draw the reader's attention to the subject they are discussing instead of themselves. While this is certainly valid, the author shouldn't go too far out of his way to remove himself from the material. Sometimes using the first person is the easiest and best solution.
Consistency
While it is possible to switch back and forth between categories in your writing, it can potentially confuse the reader if not done carefully. A good policy is to pick one and stay with it throughout an idea or paragraph (if not the entire piece of work). For example:
People enjoy themselves immensely at PSU women's volleyball games. You don't have to be an expert in volleyball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm.
Here the author switches from a third-person, plural reference, "People," to second-person "you." A better choice would be something like this:
People enjoy themselves immensely at PSU women's volleyball games. It isn't necessary to be an expert in volleyball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm.
Sources:
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/f.html#first
http://www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/handouts/grammar/tenses.pdf
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/consistency.htm
http://fiction-plots-pacing.suite101.com/article.cfm/points_of_view
http://www.saraeast.com/2008/01/05/writing-tip-first-person-vs-third-person/
I did a great deal of research on this, and was unable to come up with a consistent satisfactory answer from outside sources. Therefore, I asked for help from Penn State University Publications, who were kind enough to give me this helpful response:
"My editor and proofreader both agree that this one is tricky to sort out from the style manuals. This is what we recommend:
The possessive for the unit name should be Administrative Information Services' but the possessive for the acronym should be: AIS's. Whenever possible, you should reword to avoid the possessive of either the unit name or acronym. For example, instead of saying 'Administrative Information Services' policies', reword it to say 'the policies of Administrative Information Services'; instead of saying 'AIS's policies', reword it to say 'the policies of AIS'."
Hopefully this tip will help you all as much as it will for me in the weeks and months to come!
e.g. "The attack on Pearl Harbor (as you may recall from your school days) was what spurred the U.S. to enter World War II."
e.g. "The beautiful and mysterious Loch (lake) Ness is an essential stop on any visit to northern Scotland."
Parentheses have other functions as well; for more information on parentheses and other punctuation, go to:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html
http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node38.html
http://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/parens.asp
http://wsu.edu/~brians/errors/parentheses.html
Basically, the words assure, ensure and insure all mean the same thing: to guarantee or to promise that something is true or that something will happen. But there are slight differences between them:
Assure means to say or write the guarantee:
"He assured me that the product would be delivered tomorrow."
Ensure means to do something to make sure or guarantee that something happens:
"A firewall helps to ensure that hackers don't attack your PC.
Insure means to guarantee something with insurance or other financial instruments:
"In most countries you need to insure your car against accidents."
Source: http://englishinfocus1.googlepages.com/Assure_Ensure_Insure.htm
Most writers are familiar with these general rules. But some have difficulty identifying the various parts of speech, while others have internalized incorrect "rules" taught in elementary school. These individuals are therefore prone to making mistakes when capitalizing or lowercasing words in titles. The most common mistakes are presented below.
Two-Letter Words
Some writers lowercase all two-letter words, probably by extrapolation from the short prepositions "of", "to", "up", and so on, and the word "to" in infinitives. But if a two-letter word is acting as a noun, pronoun, adjective, or adverb, it must be capitalized. For example:
Go Tell it on the Mountain
(wrong; "it" is a pronoun and should be capitalized)When is a Spade a Spade?
(wrong; "is" is a verb and should be capitalized)
Multipurpose Words
Some writers lowercase words that can function as prepositions when those words are currently functioning in other capacities. For example:
The Man in the Moon Owns a Yellow Balloon
(correct; "in" is functioning as a preposition and should be lowercased)Bringing in the Sheaves
(wrong; "in" is functioning as an adverb and should be capitalized)
Phrasal Verbs
Some writers find it hard to decide how to capitalize a title containing a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs are verbs whose meaning is completed by a word called a particle. For example, the verb "to give" has a different meaning than the phrasal verb "to give up".
Like other multipurpose words, words functioning as particles must be distinguished from the same words functioning as prepositions. Particles are always capitalized because they form part of the verb. For example:
My Travels up Nova Scotia's South Shore
(correct; "up" is functioning as a preposition and should be lowercased)Setting up Your Computer
(wrong; "up" is functioning as a particle and should be capitalized)
Source: NIVA, Inc. http://www.writersblock.ca/tips/monthtip/tipmar98.htm
Many communication tools can be used to promote the launch of a new store; for example, flyers, press releases, radio announcements, and so on.
Central Africa was explored by Livingstone, Stanley and Brazza, among others.
Below is a list of some common Latin Abbreviations:
Abbreviation Latin English
cf. confer compare
e.g. exempli gratia for example
et al. et alii and others
etc. et cetera and so forth, and so on
i.e. id est that is
N.B. nota bene note well
P.S. post scriptum postscript
Be careful not to confuse "e.g." with "i.e."!
Punctuating these abbreviations properly requires that a comma be placed after the period in the abbreviation if it is not at the end of a sentence.
Several British universities were founded in the Victorian era; e.g., the University of Manchester was established in 1851.
Affect is usually a verb meaning "to influence".
The drug did not affect the disease.
Effect is usually a noun meaning "result".
The drug has many adverse side effects.
Effect can also be used as a verb meaning "to bring about".
The present government effected many positive changes.
Sources: http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node28.html and http://www.writersblock.ca/tips/index.htm.
Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.
Forming possessives of nouns
To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:
the boy's hat = the hat of the boy
three days' journey = journey of three days
If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!
room of the hotel = hotel room
door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.
- add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car
James's hat
- add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game
the geese's honking
- add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses' roofs
three friends' letters
- add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment.
Showing Omission of Letters
Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:
- don't = do not
- I'm = I am
- he'll = he will
- who's = who is
- shouldn't = should not
- didn't = did not
- could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)
Source: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apost.html
Writing and reference manuals offer several valid methods for creating lists. You can choose whichever method you prefer, as long as you are consistent within your document. You may choose to make run-in lists (built into the flow of your text) or vertical lists (indented and stacked up). When making a run-in list such as the one below, use parentheses around the numbers (no periods after the number, though).
I have three items to discuss: (1) the first item; (2) the second item; and (3) the third item.
Use semicolons to separate the items, whether they're expressed as fragments or full sentences.
For a vertical list (sometimes called a display list), you may choose to capitalize the items or not, and you may choose to put a comma after each item or not. (If you use commas, put a period after the last item.)
We will now review the following three principles:
- fairness in recruiting
- academic eligibility
- scholarly integrity
Your choice to capitalize or not may depend on how elaborate your lists are and how many of them you have in your text. If a vertical list contains complete sentences or lengthy and complex items, you may prefer to end each element in the list with a semicolon, except for the last element, which you will end with a period.
Most coaches conform to three basic principles in recruiting:
- Look for players first who can fill those positions you will need the subsequent year;
- Look for players who are "court smart" as opposed to being merely athletic;
- Look for players who are academically eligible and who have an academic purpose in going to college.
Although the elements in the list above begin with capital letters, that is not absolutely necessary. Notice that there is no "and" at the end of the next-to-last element (although some reference manuals allow for or recommend its use). Although we have used numbers for this list, bullets would work equally well if numbering seems inappropriate or irrelevant. The list below is based on a format suggested by the New York Public Library's Writer's Guide to Style and Usage:
Most coaches conform to three basic principles in recruiting:
- Look for players first who can fill those positions you will need the subsequent year
- Look for players who are "court-smart" as opposed to being merely athletic
- Look for players who are academically eligible and who have an academic purpose in going to college
Note that this format does not include a period even at the end of the last element. Most writers, however, want to use some kind of punctuation in their listed items. When the introductory statement is a complete sentence, you can end it with either a period or a colon. Use a colon if the sentence is clearly anticipatory of the list, especially if it contains phrasing such as the following or as follows. A colon is also appropriate if the list that follows will be numbered or will establish a priority order. If the introductory statement is not a complete statement, however, neither a period nor a colon would be appropriate since that would interrupt the grammatical structure of the statement; use either no punctuation or try the dash technique noted above.
For more information regarding proper usage of lists in your writing, go to http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/numbers.htm.
The semicolon indicates a longer pause than a comma and a shorter pause than a period. It can be used between two closely-related clauses that could potentially be separate sentences. The semicolon should also be used between clauses when one or both contains a comma.
Example of closely-related clauses:
Sam broke the pitcher in a fit of anger; he knew he would never make lemonade again.
Example of clauses containing commas:
This summer I swam in the pool, so I could develop my coordination; I rode my bike, which built up my leg strength; and I watched cartoons every Saturday morning.
The Right Time to Use "An" or "A" in Your Writing
A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The rule is:
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy
an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant
a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)
some + plural noun: some girls
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
a broken egg
an unusual problem
a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)
Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion.
I am a teacher.
Brian is an Irishman.
Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.
For more fun with definite and indefinite articles, read the full article provided by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslart.html