The Pennsylvania State University - Administrative Information Services, a unit of Information Technology Services

AIS Newsletter

AIS Writing Tips

AIS Writing Tips

by Paul Yeager

November 2009

80% of What You Write for the Web is Wasted, Unless...

When writing content for a Web site, it's vital to remember that Web readers are believed to read approximately 20% to 30% of the content on the page (How Little Do Users Read?), meaning that, if not written properly, much of a writer's effort is wasted.

Scanners, not Readers

While we all dream of hours passing while reading a great book under the cooling shade of a large Oak tree or when lying on a fluffy sofa with a distant thunderstorm rumbling, we never romanticize reading Web content. It's not to be savored--it's to be looked through quickly and efficiently. We're trained to use our computers to get things done, not to leisurely stroll through content. It's an active process, not a passive one.

Besides, reading on a computer screen strains our eyes more than reading a book; even if we wanted to read page after page after page, our eyes may not allow us.

That's why Web readers scan copy rather than read word for word.

Scan-able Content

An effective Web writer understands the limitations of the medium and adjusts to them as best he can, making the content more scan-able (at the risk of inventing a new word). There are many techniques to make content easier to scan, and I'll just focus on one today--headlines.

Multiple Headlines

One of the easiest, most effective ways to make content better for the Web audience is to break the content into smaller sections with separate headlines (sub-headings)--as I have cleverly done in this post. This is effective for a couple of reasons:

More Later

I will give additional tips about Writing for the Web in future months.

Which Are You More Likely to Read?

In the interest of comparison and contrast, I wanted to show you what the above tip would look like without the helpful headlines.

When writing content for a Web site, it's vital to remember that Web readers are believed to read approximately 20% to 30% of the content on the page (How Little Do Users Read?), meaning that, if not written properly, much of a writer's effort is wasted.
    While we all dream of hours passing while reading a great book under the cooling shade of a large Oak tree or when lying on a fluffy sofa with a distant thunderstorm rumbling, we never romanticize reading Web content. It's not to be savored--it's to be looked through quickly and efficiently. We're trained to use our computers to get things done, not to leisurely stroll through content. It's an active process, not a passive one.
     Besides, reading on a computer screen strains our eyes more than reading a book; even if we wanted to read page after page after page, our eyes may not allow us. That's why Web readers scan copy rather than read word for word.
     An effective Web writer understands the limitations of the medium and adjusts to them as best he can, making the content more scan-able (at the risk of inventing a new word). There are many techniques to make content easier to scan, and I'll just focus on one today--headlines.
     One of the best, most effective ways to make content easier for Web readers is to break content into smaller sections with separate headlines (sub-headings)--as I have cleverly done in this post. This is effective for a couple of reasons. Before reading even one word, the reader understands that the content will be simple to digest; it's inviting rather than intimidating. Once he begins to read, a quick look at the headlines will give the reader an idea of which sections will interest him, giving him the opportunity to only read the parts applicable to him rather than reading the entire text.
     I will give additional tips about Writing for the Web in future months.

October 2009

The Reason Why is Because It's Redundant

Redundancy is so engrained in language that we often don't notice it. That's how terms, such as absolutely essential, join together, consensus of opinion, and blazing inferno, become part of our daily communication--we've stopped thinking about the obvious repetition and merely say what we've heard before. Three common words often redundantly repeated over and over again (how's that for redundant!) are reason, why, and because.

Reason Is the Why

The reason that you do something is why you do it. Since they're the same, do not combine the two in a sentence when writing or speaking.

Correct:

Incorrect:

Reason is Because

Since because means for the reason that, it should become clear very quickly that the phrase the reason is because is redundant--unless you don't consider the phrase the reason is for the reason that to be repetitious. Some dictionaries also list due to the fact that as a definition of reason. The redundancy might not be as obvious, but it still sounds repetitious (or at least indirect and convoluted) to say the reason is due to the fact that.

Correct:

Incorrect:

The Triple Play

The triple play in baseball (getting all three outs of an inning on one play) is rare, only occurring once or twice per season in all of the major leagues, but the triple play in language redundancy is more common than a losing season by the Pittsburgh Pirates (17 consecutive----and counting!). It happens all too frequently when reason, why, and because are combined into a redundant nightmare of the reason why is because.

Correct:

Incorrect:

For more on these common redundancies, read Sherry Coven's posts on languageandgrammar.com (which I co-write), (The Reason is Already the Why and Reason is Because).

September 2009

Punctuation and Bulleted Lists

Bulleted lists are a popular and effective way to organize information, especially on the Web since Web readers browse instead of reading in a traditional sense, but it's difficult to know how to do them properly.

Penn State's Editorial Style Manual makes frequent references to The Chicago Manual of Style--an excellent resource--so the information in this Writing Tip is based on the Chicago Manual of Style's Vertical Lists, Bullets Web page. 

That Web page should answer all of your questions, but let me hit a few of the more important points here:

August 2009

Second Draft--Don't Write Home Without It

"There are no good writers, only good re-writers" is a line I've heard before, and while many of us may not care about being known as good writers, we should care about being known as a good whatever it is we do. And in order for us to be perceived as being good at what we do, we must never use a first draft for any professional purpose.

The type of writing that is included in professional use is more than just the obvious, such published material (newsletter articles, journal articles); it also includes proposals (formal and informal), reports, e-mails to supervisors, e-mails to subordinates, and correspondence with vendors or partners. Every piece of written material (including electronically-written material) represents you and the job you do.

First drafts are full of incomplete thoughts, redundancy, poor sentence structure, and grammar errors; they also lack flow and polish. All of these things reflect poorly on the writer, giving the impression that the author is not an expert on the topic he's writing, which is most likely the focus of his job.

A second draft will give the author the opportunity to complete thoughts, remove redundancy, improve sentence structure, and correct some of the grammar errors. A third revision, preferably by an outside source (such as an editor) may be needed to polish the writing, improve the flow, and add further insight into potential logic and redundancy problems. Handing a first draft to an editor will lead to an improved second draft, not a polished final copy. If you hand a second draft to an editor, you have your best chance of having a polished, crisp final product.

Tips for Writing a Second Draft

I understand that we're all busy and won't have time to do all of those things for all professional writing; however, this must be done for any type of printed material, and at least some version of working on a second draft (such as shortening text) should be done for all types of professional writing.

Think of it this way--you're doing it for yourself, not the other person--since it's your reputation that's at stake.

July 2009

We Might Possibly Be Too Uncertain...I Think

I was a weather forecaster for over 20 years, so believe me, I know about uncertainty. (Insert your favorite joke about the weather man here.) There are times, however, when weather forecasters make things worse for their already poor reputations, such as when they use too many words of uncertainty in a forecast. That's the way it works for all of us when communicating--too much uncertainty (or uncertainty where it doesn't belong) makes for ineffective communication.

Let's use weather forecasts as examples of uncertainty, with the words of uncertainty italicized.

All three examples convey the same general forecast, but the second sounds more uncertain than the first. And the third gives the impression that the meteorologist has absolutely no idea what he's doing. (Insert your second favorite joke about the weather man here.)

Redundancy

The grammatical problem with using multiple words of uncertainty is redundancy.

The redundancy in the first example is obvious--eliminate the word possibly, and the sentence is fine.

In the second, the redundant uncertainty is less obvious, but both the words chance and could are expressing doubt when only one is needed. Either replace the word could with will to correct the problem (There is a chance that I will attend the conference), or re-write the sentence to some variation of I might be able to attend the conference.

Perception is Reality

Another significant problem with using too much uncertainty (or uncertainty when it shouldn't be used) is, as in the weather example above, the risk of sounding unknowledgeable, uncertain, or unassertive--none of which is good for anyone in any situation.

Simple changes will make the examples above seem more knowledgeable, confident, and assertive--without removing doubt when appropriate

If perception is reality, as we've all said at some point, then we can alter our reality by choosing words that work for us, not against us.

 

June 2009

Don't Touch that Pen------Yet

Many of us think of writing as a one-step process, using the pen or, more likely, the word processor to create written material; however, writing is a multiple-step process. As former president, George H. W. Bush might say, “it’s hard work.”

The first step should take place before one word lands on the page. This process is sometimes called prewriting, but I don’t like to use that term since it’s 1) not a commonly accepted word and 2) it’s misleading since it’s something that should be considered part of the writing process, not something that happens prior to the writing process.

This early stage of writing does not need to be long or complicated, and according to Technical Writing: Process and Product (by Gearson and Gearson), it is composed of five components:

Examine Your Purpose

This is simply your motivation for writing, and it’s either an external motivation (someone asked you to write something) or internal (you initiated the need to write something).

Determine Your Goals

You might be writing with the intention of achieving any number of goals, and the examples given by Gearson and Gearson, which can overlap, are:

Consider Your Audience

I believe that this is one of the most important aspects to writing effectively—knowing who’s going to read it. Should it be written in a technical fashion for fellow experts (a journal, for example) or for novices (a newsletter, for example)?  Is it for peers, superiors, or subordinates?

Gather Your Data

This is a determination of how you will gather the information needed to write your content, and it can come from other people, conducting research, internal discussion, or any number of other places. You might not need to have all of the data on hand at this stage, but you need to know where the information is going to come from so that the writing process is not slow or incomplete.

Determine How Content Will Be Provided

This may have already been determined for you based on the specifics of the request, but before you write, you’ll need to know whether you’re going to write an e-mail, Web article, print article, brochure, or presentation. These obviously require different styles of writing, such as a Web article should be short with multiple sub-headings unlike a printed article that can be more text heavy since Web readers tend to scan articles more than read.

Other Writing Steps

While this initial process of writing is important to the writing process, steps after the initial writing have been done are just as important—and are often skipped. These steps include creating a second draft and a final draft—even if you have an editor to look at the content before publication. This will be the topic of a future writing tip.

May 2009

Neologisms

Word usage (written and oral) is a choice, and the words that we select are as important to making an impression on others as the clothes we wear—and we certainly know that we’re perceived differently when wearing a tuxedo than a t-shirt with a tie printed on it. If you're unsure, wear the latter to the next formal occasion you attend.

Neologisms are either new words or existing words with new meanings, but the new words or new meanings are not always accepted by everyone. Even when they are accepted, they’re typically not universally accepted for years (or even decades). As a result, a new definition is not always understood and might be a language error.

I’m going to highlight three words with shifting meanings today, all of which are popular in business communication.

Issue

The word issue has many meanings, including topic (we have many issues on the agenda), a point of decision (the issue is whether we should have pizza or salad for dinner), a going, coming, passing, or flowing (such as issue meaning a stream flowing out), or copies of a work (third issue of a book). There are many others; however, using the word issue to mean problem is a relatively new usage, and it’s incorrect.

Many businesses forbid workers from saying problem to a client; however, after a few years of non-stop usage, believe me, clients and customers have figured out that problem and issue mean the same thing. A customer might accept it freely, especially if he does the same thing; or, he might become annoyed that you’re too passive to admit to there being a problem. In some instances, he might not understand what you're saying, thinking that you're talking about a topic, not a problem. 

Blowback

Many times, the shifting meanings of words is done so that a new, more intelligent-sounding word can be used instead of an old standard. That’s not the case for blowback, which is a much more awkward way to talk about consequences than, well, consequences. Blowback, by the way, has a couple of meanings; the closest to consequences is, according to dictionary.com, the effect caused by recirculation into the source country of disinformation previously planted abroad by that country’s intelligence service in an effort to mislead the government of another country.

Yikes—I don’t know what that means, but that’s not what I want to send in an e-mail to a client or say to a co-worker when I mean consequences.

Pushback 

Pushback is another word that is less articulate than the word it’s replacing, resistance, but that has not stopped its rapid ascension to a business super-word. The other issue—I mean, problem--is that it doesn’t mean resistance. Pushback either means, according to The American Heritage Dictionary, a mechanism that affords movement of another object backward or the forced movement of troops back from the line.

Read More

Sherry Coven and I were recently asked by Forbes.com to write an article on neologisms, so if you’re interested, please read Why Language Changes.

April 2009

Spaces--No BOGO; Dashes--Squish 'em Together

One thing that I will not do in my critically acclaimed (hey--my wife thinks they're great) writing tips section is shy away from the controversial topics facing us today. With that in mind, I'm going to challenge two widely held beliefs related to spacing--that we should use two spaces after a period and that we should leave spaces on both sides of a dash.

I know. It's bold, but a man's gotta do what a man's gotta do. 

Spaces--No BOGO
BOGO stands for Buy One, Get One Free, and its use, unfortunately, is not relegated to the grocery store. Many of us still insist on placing two spaces after a "hard stop' in our writing, such as a period, question mark, or exclamation point.

The two-space-after-a-hard-stop guideline started as a way to make typing on a typewriter (remember those?) more legible since the amount of space taken by all keys on a typewriter is uniform. For instance, an "i" takes up as much space as 'w.' As a result, an extra space was added after a hard stop, believing that it would make the print easier to read since breaks would be more identifiable.

Well, it's 2009, and one of the few places you can still find a typewriter is in the landfill.

Many online software content management systems will automatically delete any extra spaces inserted into a text file, including those after a hard stop. Publications (books, newspapers (destined to go the way of the typewriter, perhaps?), magazines, and brochures) are nearly universally printed with one space after a hard stop. Many word processing software packages automatically justify text (which adds and subtracts space between letters throughout the entire line to make the right margin consistent), or at least include that option. An extra space in this format looks especially awkward. Finally, many Web style guides recommend one space.

In other words, unless you are exclusively using the typewriter, there is no justification for the double space, other than personal preference. Penn State Publications recommends using a double space after a hard stop for typewriter-written text only. Everything else, including typewritten text that will be printed or converted into something that will be printed, should have a single space.

I know that this is going to be a hard habit to break for the double spacers out there, and I sympathize. In fact, it's difficult for me to remove extra spaces from a large Web site full of double spaces, and I'm not quite obsessive enough to make removing double spaces my mission for the next two or three months.

The point is that it's best for the writer to avoid double spaces as best as he can, and it's best for an editor to delete them as best he can.

Dashes--Squish 'em Together
According to Penn State Publications, there should be no space before or after a dash. In other words, it should be dashes--squish 'em together rather than dashes -- spread 'em apart.

I think of it this way:  The space between two words is still there; however, rather than being filled with air to indicate that the two are not related, it's filled with a dash to indicated what follows (and precedes) is connected.

Special Colon Note:  If you noticed that I put two spaces after the colon above (and in this note), it's not in the same category as the hard breaks mentioned in Spaces--No BOGO. After a colon, there should be one space when the following thought is an incomplete thought (such as a list in non-sentence form) but two spaces when it's a complete thought (such as a sentence). Hey, I don't make the rules up. I just enforce them.

March 2009

Confusing Word Pairs

Confused word pares--I mean pairs--is a common mistake in English, and it's not surprising. When two identical (or nearly so) words mean different things, there is going to be confusion.

Anytime (or is it any time?) I find myself confused, which is not an every day (or is it everyday?) occurrence, I know that it will be alright (or is it all right?) as long as I spend awhile (or a while?) doing research. 

While there are many such confusing word pairs, let's take a look at the four that I managed to squeeze into my convoluted example sentence above.

Anytime/Any time

This example is not the best example of confused word pairs; it's probably a better example of a slang term that's become more popular, at least that's how I look at it. Anytime is often considered slang and does not appear in many dictionaries.

Some people believe that there is a difference between anytime and any time, with anytime being an adverb meaning at any time whatsoever, while any time should be used when referring to a specific time. In other words, Stop by anytime would be considered correct using that philosophy since it's a general invitation. Also correct would be Schedule the meeting any time between one and three because specific times are referenced. A Purdue University Web site makes this argument.

Personally, I think that any time is always correct and anytime is always slang and is best avoided.

Every day/Every Day

This pair is not as controversial (I know what you're thinking--controversial grammar? Please. Remind me to someday tell you about how angry some people get if you don't agree with their grammar assessment!).

Everyday is an adjective, describing a noun and answering the question what kind of. Lunch with Tom is an everyday occurrence. The noun is occurrence, and everyday (the adjective) answers the question what kind of occurrence.

Every day (two words) is an adverb, and it answers the question when. In the example, I have lunch with Tom every day, every day is an adverb because it answers the question when do I have lunch with Tom.

There is a trick to knowing which to use. If you can put the word single between every and day, then you need to use every day (two words), not everyday (one word). For more information, refer to languageandgrammar.com, which is, as you may recall, the blog that my wife and I share.

Alright/All right

This is another slang versus non-slang argument, and if you haven't noticed by now, I will always rule in favor of the non-slang term. Alright is a nonstandard version of all right. In other words, it's in the same category as one of the most famous nonstandard words in English, ain't, so unless you send e-mails to your boss and co-workers with the word ain't, don't send it with the word alright.

Awhile/A while

The difference between awhile and a while is subtle, but subtlety in communication is important--and if you've read the last three examples, I assume that you agree.

Awhile means for a period of time and a while means a period of time. If you hadn't noticed, the only difference is the lonely, little word for.

In other words, both I'm going to be gone awhile and I'm going to be gone for a while are correct, and both I'm going to be gone for awhile and I'm going to be gone a while are incorrect.

Once again, I refer you to languageandgrammar.com if you're interested in more on this subtle topic.

February 2009

AIAB--Acronyms, Initialisms, Abbreviations, and Backronyms

AA: As you look at this on your POS or PC, I'm sure that you'll notice that the use of acronyms in AIS is LARS, constantly increasing, and it's no surprise. In fact, it's understandable. With so much HID, acronyms are needed to MICS (I made that one up!); however, as far as ECM is concerned, unless you KYA (mine), acronyms can confuse more than clarify. My advice: SOYA when writing for an EA (mine again!!).

Reading an article filled with acronyms and initialisms can be confusing and frustrating, often resulting in a writer not getting his point across--as I imagine happened above. Before I translate the first paragraph, though, let's talk about the different types of shortened terminology.

Acronym is the most popular type of shortened term used here at AIS. An acronym is a "word" created from the initial letters of the words in a phrase or title. ISIS is a good example. It's short for Integrated Student Information System, and the shortened version, ISIS, is something that can be treated and spoken like a word.

An initialism is slightly different. It also uses the initial letters of the words of a phrase or title, but the initials do not create something that is treated as a word. AIS would technically be an initialism, not an acronym, since we pronounce the letters individually, A-I-S, not collectively, such as saying "ayz" or "ace," as it might be pronounced. In other words, an initialism is not treated like a word.

An abbreviation is merely a shortened version of a single word, such as Pa. being short for Pennsylvania.

A backronym is typically an acronym that wasn't originally considered, typically done in a mocking way or for other non-official purposes. For instance, urban legend claims that "KISS," when referring to the band, means "Knights In Satan's Service."

Backronyms don't apply to the AIS Web site, and I'll talk about abbreviations another day...so...on to some guidance for the use of acronyms and initialisms in writing. Before that, though, let's translate that first paragraph. 

TRANSLATION:

Author's Addition (AA): As you look at this on your personal operating system (POS) or personal computer (PC), I'm sure that you'll notice that the use of acronyms is like a rolling stone (LARS), constantly increasing, and it's no surprise. In fact, it's understandable. With so much highly interconnected data (HID), acronyms are needed to make internal communication simpler (MICS); however, as far as electronic content management (ECM) (the Web site, for instance), is concerned, unless you know your audience (KYA), acronyms can confuse more than clarify. My advice:  Spell out your acronyms (SOYA) when writing for an external audience (EA).

USE OF ACRONYMS FOR WRITING TO AN EXTERNAL AUDIENCE:
While using acronyms within a closed circle of people who all know the meanings of the acronyms, there is no need to spell out acronyms. For instance, I wouldn't send Diane Weller, my supervisor, an e-mail saying that I need to talk to her about the Integrated Student Information System when we both know what ISIS means. It would be wasted words, and, more important, it would make it appear as if I'm an outsider, not part of the AIS team.

Having said that, whenever there is any question about whether the audience completely understands all of the acronyms, the first reference needs to be completely spelled out to avoid confusion. This might apply to people within the department who don't work with that particular service, and it always applies to anyone not affiliated with AIS or perhaps ITS. It's common courtesy.

Generally, this is done by spelling out the full name, with the acronym in parentheses, for the first reference; then, any future references should just be the acronym. For instance, Integrated Student System Service (ISIS) would be the first reference, and ISIS would simply be used for the rest of the text. The first reference can be done in reverse, though. ISIS (Integrated Student Systems Service) can be the first reference, with ISIS being the reference for the rest of the text

The AIS Web site is available to anyone who has an Internet connection, from State College to Saratoga Springs, from Bellefonte to Bolivia, and from Shields Building to the U.N. Building. While the external audience is limited to some degree by the nature of the work done here, we want everyone who comes to the site to have the opportunity to understand the content. That's why you should SOYA (Spell Out Your Acronym) with the first reference on every page. I understand that there might be times when that seems unnecessary, such as a fourth-level page for programming resources since it's virtually impossible for a user to have gotten that far into the site without learning the appropriate acronyms, but even there, it's best to SOYA.

I hope that helps (IHTH).

January 2009

Enough With the Commas Already...

I know. I know. This is my fifth AIS Writing Tips entry, and it's the third about the comma. While some of you may be saying "enough with the commas already," bear with me--this is important.

How many times have you, as a reader, had to re-read a sentence in order to get the meaning? Sure, you could take responsibility for not paying attention, but you could also blame the writer, and who wants to take responsibility if he can blame someone else?! Seriously, though, a missing or misplaced comma is one way to cause confusion for readers, and a missing comma at the end of an introductory phrase causes the most confusion when I'm reading. It's probably the case for everyone else, too.

Introductory phrases come in many forms--they can be an adverbial phrase, a prepositional phrase, and can sometimes be a single word (which is not a phrase at all)--but rather than getting bogged down in the grammatical details, if we understand the purpose of an introductory phrase, then the reason for using a comma after one will become clear.

An introductory phrase is something that sets the stage for the main part of the sentence, or it modifies the main part of the sentence. In other words, it depends on what follows to complete its meaning. Look at it this way:  The comma marks the end of that introductory phrase, setting the stage for the main part of the sentence (the part that can stand on its own) to begin. If we skip the comma, then the reader might not know when this introductory part of the sentence (which cannot stand on its own) ends and the main part begins, leading to understandable confusion.

Let's look at an example sentence. To me, it makes sense to always put a comma after an introductory phrase. The introductory phrase, to me, is a prepositional phrase that modifies the main part of the sentence, it makes sense to always put a comma before an introductory phrase. Since the sentence has the comma after me, the end of the prepositional phrase is obvious. Without the comma, not only might the reader believe that the entire sentence is a prepositional phrase, but, technically, the reader would be correct--the entire sentence would appear to be a prepositional phrase patiently awaiting an independent clause to modify. This type of simple comma omission has caused me to re-read about approximately a million sentences in order to determine where the introductory phrase ended so that I could understand the meaning. This, by the way, is time that I could have put to use writing more writing tips!

Here are some correct examples of introductory phrases followed by commas:

Since we're not going to leave until this afternoon, I have time to go to the bank.
This morning, I'm going to the bank.
Meanwhile, my friend can go to the grocery store.

Without the comma, I'm going to assume that everything is connected. For instance, if the writer were to omit the comma, I would read Since we're not going to leave until this afternoon I have time to go to the bank as one connected thought, and I'm going to expect that it will be followed by the rest of the thought, such as we won't be shopping on 5th Avenue until this evening. When the reader realizes nothing else is following the extended introductory clause, he may need to go back and re-read the sentence in order to understand the meaning, mentally placing the comma where it belongs. The same confusion would occur with the other examples---and the possibility of confusion exists with every omitted comma.

Many people follow the all-too-common guidance of if it's a short introductory phrase at the start of sentence, then it doesn't need a comma. To me, that makes as much sense as saying If it's a long red light, then you don't have to stop for the entire time. Wait for a reasonable amount of time, and then floor it."  If a comma is needed before an introductory phrase, then a comma is needed before all introductory phrases. It makes no sense to put an arbitrary qualifier on the statement, such as before a long introductory phrase but not a short one. Who would be in charge of deciding what constitutes a long or short introductory phrase? Would we need to convene an emergency meeting of the Introductory Phrase Board (IPB since we use so many acronyms around here) any time a dispute arises?

Use a comma after all introductory phrases.

Note: Don't be fooled by what appears to be an introductory phrase that serves the purpose of being the subject of the sentence. This does not require a comma, and it's not an introductory phrase. In the example Finishing the report was the last thing he needed to do on Friday, the phrase finishing the report acts as the subject of the sentence--effectively serving as a noun clause. It's what needs to be done. This should not be separated from the remainder of the sentence just as Bob in Bob is going to the bank should not be separated by a comma. That's not an exception to the rule; it's a case where something that looks like an introductory phrases is actually something else.

December 2008

Nouns Have Enough to Do Already!

Anyone who has spent any time talking to me about language, grammar, and writing has undoubtedly heard me go on a rant about nouns being incorrectly used as verbs (It's even a chapter in my language book), so I thought I'd make it easier by talking to everyone about it at one time--in this month's AIS Writing Tips!

We all know what nouns are--people, places, and things. We also all know what verbs are--words of action. There is a trend (a very annoying one, if you ask me) of using perfectly acceptable nouns as perfectly unacceptable verbs. This is typically done, in my opinion, as a way to try to make the speaker sound more intelligent since certain common verbs, such as is, are, talk, and going, are dry, boring words, so turning the noun in the sentence into the verb makes the sentence seem much more dynamic and interesting. The problem is that the new non-words are often clunky, trendy, and incorrect, which is a bigger problem than something that's not believed to be dynamic enough.

Many words serve the dual purpose of being a noun and a verb, such as house, underline, export, and escort. Presumably, some of these were once exclusively nouns that have successfully made the transition into verbs and are now accepted as both nouns and verbs, and that process is probably part of the reason for so freely changing nouns into verbs. It's also why the topic of nouns being used as verbs represents a grey area in language, but many nouns are simply not acceptable for use as verbs. Let me give a few examples:

Message:
Message means many things, all of which are nouns. It can be a communication containing information (a thing) or an official communication, such as the president's message (a thing). It can also be the point or morale of a story, such as The message of the movie is that life is full of hope (a thing). Message is not a way in which to communicate, such as We have to be careful about how we message this.

Dialogue:
A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people (a thing), such as I had a dialogue with my boss. It is not the process of communicating with two or more people, such as I dialogued with my boss. Stick with talk, discuss, or converse.

Impact: 
Impact can be used as a verb, but as a verb, it means to hit with force, such as The meteor impacted the earth. It should not be used as a verb to mean affect, as in The economy impacted my budget. The correct usage in this instance would be The economy had an impact on my budget or The economy has affected my budget.

Note: The examples I gave may appear as verbs in some dictionaries, but it's important to note that dictionaries are a reflection of current usage, not necessarily of correct usage. In other words, commonly made mistakes often appear in dictionaries (ain't is one such example), especially online dictionaries. They should be flagged as substandard; however, they may not be. 

The choice to use nouns that have been turned into verbs as a part of the recent trend is yours, but for many of those who are listening to what you say (and making judgments about who you are based on what they hear), the use of a verb as a noun sounds as awkward as saying Please lamp the room or Please glass me some water rather than the correct Please turn on the lamp or Please get me a glass of water.

November 2008

Firstly and Most Importantly, It's Wrong

Topic one: Firstly, secondly...thirdly
Using the words firstly, secondly, thirdly, and so on to enumerate a list of items is incorrect despite its widespread acceptance and its presence in some dictionaries.

First, second, third, fourth (and so on) are called ordinal numbers, which means that they indicate the order of position of something. That's precisely what you're doing when you're listing things, such as:

First, I'm going to the store. Second, I'm going to the bank. Third, I'm going to the post office.

Not only is adding an -ly unnecessary, but it's incorrect. Adding an -ly in this way typically turns a word into an adverb, describing how something is done. Using the above example, you're not going to the store in a firstly manner and then going to the bank in a secondly manner. You're going to the store and then the bank in that order.

My favorite grammar expert (my wife) has written a post on this topic (Ordinal Numbers: First, not Firstly).

Topic Two: Most (More) Importantly
When using important in a way that describes something of significance or consequence, use more important and most important instead of the incorrect more importantly and most importantly. In an effort to promote nepotism, I will once again refer you to a post by my favorite grammar expert (Most Important, Not Most Importantly).

Importantly means in an important way just as quickly means in a quick way. Reserve importantly for those few instances when you want to describe something being done in an important manner. Those instances are so rare that I can't even think of a good example. Perhaps The hospital aid moved importantly with the box that contained the heart for a transplant is one example, but even with that example, importantly is an awkward word choice.

Descriptivism Versus Prescriptivism
Oh, I know what some of you are thinking right now--because I'm a full-time writer AND part-time psychic. Some of you are saying, He might technically be correct, but isn't he being a bit picky? I mean, geez, everyone knows what I mean when I say  firstly or most importantly, and many people don't even consider these to be mistakes. Those of you who think in that way are generally described as descriptivists in the world of grammar. This group of people generally uses the philosophy of If they understand me, then it doesn't matter how I say it. Language is always changing and evolving, and it makes sense to go along with the ride. If people want to invent a new word, start using an old word in a new way, change punctuation rules, then they should--and if it catches on, we should all accept it. If you feel that way and want to continue to use the erroneous firstly and most importantly, then you will be met with little rejection. In fact, many descriptivists will applaud you.

On the other hand, if you believe that grammar rules exist for a reason and should be followed, then you are a prescriptivist. Changes in language--new words, old words being used in new ways, punctuation rules changes, etc.--should be based on logic and need, not out of convenience or the acceptance of a commonly used error. While language will evolve, it should not do so indiscriminately. If you feel this way, then you will want to remove firstly and most importantly from your vocabulary. Prescriptivists will support you.

I consider myself to be a language independent, not falling neatly into either category, but I tend to be much more of a presciptivist than descriptivist because it makes sense to have language rules. They're needed to facilitate accurate communication and promote consistency in language.

October 2008

Commafusion--Part II

I've said it before, and I'll say it again:  Commafusion (confusion about comma placement) is common. In fact, I'm not sure that trying to explain proper comma placement as my first AIS Writing Tips series was the smartest decision I've ever made (since it's a complex topic), but I'm ready for the challenge. Are you? Drum roll, please. Let's talk commas with subordinating conjunctions.

I know. I know. Most people immediately recall the days of junior high school English class when anyone mentions terms such as subordinating conjunctions and coordinating conjunctions, but before you toss a spitwad over your cubicle wall, let me briefly define the terms. Then, we'll move on.

A coordinating conjunction is a word that connects two similar words, phrases, or clauses. I went the store and the bank. The bank and store are similar--not because they both take your money but because they're both nouns. The word and connects them and is, therefore, a coordinating conjunction. Rules on commas for coordinating conjunctions can be found in Commafusion, Part I.

A subordinating conjunction connects a subordinate clause with the rest of a sentence. That doesn't help unless you know what a subordinate clause is, of course, and that's simply a clause that depends on the rest of the sentence in order to have meaning. An example of a subordinating clause is before you leave today since the phrase has no meaning without additional information. If your boss said to you before you leave today, you'd need to know more. Should I pick up my check before I leave? Should I pick up my pink slip before I leave? Should I have the report on his or her desk before I leave?

There are many subordinating conjunctions, and some have other uses (just to further confuse everyone). I'm not giving a quiz, so you don't have to memorize them, but Englishplus.com has an extensive list. A few examples include include even, although, now that (yes, it can be more than one word).

When the clause that lacks meaning (subordinate clause) is attached to the clause that explains its meaning, it becomes a complete sentence. If the subordinate clause follows the main clause, then there is NEVER a comma. If the subordinate clause is used as an introductory clause (first part of sentence), then it is ALWAYS followed by a comma.

Correct examples when subordinate clause (italicized) follows the main clause (no comma):

Turn off the lights before you leave today.
Multi-media specialist Tom will attend the game even if it rains.
She puts on a hat when the sun shines.

When the subordinate clause (italicized) is used as an introductory clause, it is always followed by a comma:

Before you leave today, turn off the lights.
Even if it rains, multi-media specialist Tom will attend the game.
When the sun shines, she puts on a hat.

Now, that wasn't so bad, was it?

September 2008

Commafusion--Part I

I know that there is a lot of confusion about where to place commas; I like to call it commafusion.

Some people say to "put a comma where the reader needs a break," but that doesn't make much sense. Comma placement is dictated by well-defined grammar rules, not by when a reader might need to take a breath. First of all, we need the consistency in order for text to be easy to read. Second, readers are going to breathe when they need to, not when the writer might think they should--at least I hope they do!! I'd hate to be responsible for someone passing out just because I decided not to throw a couple of commas into a sentence.

I'm only going to talk about the comma as it relates to two clauses in one sentence today--I can't explain all comma rules in one post.

When dealing with multiple phrases that are connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, nor, for, or, yet, so), my advice is simple: Think in terms of dependence and independence.

Phrases that can stand on their own as complete sentences are called independent clauses, and independent clauses need to be separated by a comma and a conjunction. A good example would be the sentence that I just wrote since it is composed of  two independent clauses. Both Phrases that can stand on their own as complete sentences are called independent clauses and Independent clauses need to be separated by a comma and a conjunction are clauses that can stand alone; therefore, they're separated by a comma and connected by a coordinating conjunction (and).

If one of the phrases is a dependent clause, meaning that it cannot stand alone (meaning, not a complete sentence), then the clauses are not separated by a comma even if the writer uses a conjunction. For example:  I'm writing about commas but not semi-colons. In that example, one of the clauses is independent (I'm writing about commas) since it can stand alone. The other part of the sentence (not semi-colons) is clearly not a complete thought, with or without the addition of the conjunction, but. As a result, those two phrases--one independent clause and one dependent clause--are not connected with a comma.

Examples of sentences with two independent clauses separated by a comma:

I'm going to the store, and I'm going to the bank.
Learning proper comma placement is worthwhile, but it doesn't make for a great hobby.
These writing tips are fantastic, and I hope Paul publishes another one in conjunction with the October AIS Newsletter.

Examples of sentences with one independent clause and one dependent clause (not separated by a comma):

I'm going to the store and the bank.
Learning proper comma placement is worthwhile but not a great hobby.
These writing tips are fantastic and will be published in conjunction with the AIS Newsletter (starting in October).

NOTE: AGAIN, THIS TIP IS RELATED TO TWO CLAUSES CONNECTED BY COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (AND, BUT, NOR, FOR, YET, SO);  IT IS NOT RELATED TO CLAUSES CONNECTED BY SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (ALTHOUGH, BECAUSE, SINCE, UNLESS) OR INTRODUCTORY  CLAUSES. DIFFERENT RULES APPLY TO THOSE AND WILL BE DISCUSSED LATER.

June 2008

Accept vs. Except

Two words that are commonly confused in writing are the words "accept" and "except".  Words like this that sound almost exactly alike but have different meanings are known as homophones.  This, combined with their similar spelling, leads to frequent incorrect usage by writers.

Here are the general meanings of these words, along with some examples of proper usage.

Accept
Accept is a verb that means "to receive, admit, regard as true, say yes."

I'm sorry, I can't accept this present.

Carla was accepted to Penn State University.

Newton's Theory of Gravity is generally accepted by modern scientists.

I asked her to marry me, and she accepted!

Except
Except is a preposition that means "excluding."

I knew everyone at the party except the woman in the red dress.

He bought a gift for everyone except me.

I'd like everything on my hamburger except pickles and mayonnaise.

Source: http://www.elearnenglishlanguage.com/difficulties/acceptexcept.html

April 2008

Off to the (Principal's/Principle's) Office You Go!

"Principle" vs. "Principal" - these words are often confused; here is how they are different, and how they can be used correctly.

The word principle is always a noun, while principal can be either a noun or an adjective.

Two common definitions for principal are:

Principal (noun): the most important person in an organization.

e.g. "As the school principal, Mr. Miller was both feared and respected by all the students."

Principal (adjective): the first in importance, rank, value, etc.

e.g. "The Mona Lisa is the principal painting in the Louvre Museum."
e.g. "Wet roads and excessive speeds were the principal reasons for the car crash."

Principle, however, can only be used as a noun.
Principle (noun): a standard, rule, or moral guideline.

e.g. "Michael refused to take money for mowing their lawn as a matter of principle."
e.g. "Morals and principles are what separate man from the rest of the animal kingdom; and on some occasions, from each other."

February 2008

Writing from the Perspective of the First, Second, or Third Person

Writers have generally divided references to people into three categories (first, second, and third person), telling the reader whether the subject is speaking, is spoken to, or is spoken about.

First Person perspective is generally used to give a more personal, casual, and sometimes informal feel, such as in an online blog, an editorial, or an autobiography.

Second Person is told from the "you" viewpoint and is most often associated with literary works. It would be rare to find an entire novel written in this point of view, but it can be very effective in small doses, such as in a prologue or in italicized scenes interspersed throughout a first or third person text.

Third Person is widely used in the writing of technical and scientific authors to give a more detached, official, authoritative tone. It is also widely used by fiction writers, giving them the ability to show their readers different perspectives as they move through the story. Some people have been taught to always use third person in their writing, and never use first person at all. The idea behind this is that the author should draw the reader's attention to the subject they are discussing instead of themselves. While this is certainly valid, the author shouldn't go too far out of his way to remove himself from the material. Sometimes using the first person is the easiest and best solution.

Consistency
While it is possible to switch back and forth between categories in your writing, it can potentially confuse the reader if not done carefully. A good policy is to pick one and stay with it throughout an idea or paragraph (if not the entire piece of work). For example:

People enjoy themselves immensely at PSU women's volleyball games. You don't have to be an expert in volleyball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm.

Here the author switches from a third-person, plural reference, "People," to second-person "you." A better choice would be something like this:

People enjoy themselves immensely at PSU women's volleyball games. It isn't necessary to be an expert in volleyball to get caught up in the crowd's enthusiasm.

Sources:
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/f.html#first
http://www.evergreen.edu/writingcenter/handouts/grammar/tenses.pdf
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/consistency.htm
http://fiction-plots-pacing.suite101.com/article.cfm/points_of_view
http://www.saraeast.com/2008/01/05/writing-tip-first-person-vs-third-person/

December 2007

How to Make 'Administrative Information Services' Plural!

This small but nagging issue has been popping up from time to time for many people - including myself! The rules of grammar are usually pretty clear when it comes to making singular and plural words possessive. But what if you're not sure if the word is singular or plural? Take the case of Administrative Information Services, for example. While the services the organization provides are certainly plural, the unit (and the phrase that makes up its title) is a singular entity. So how do you write out the possessive form correctly? And what about the acronym AIS? Do the same rules apply?

I did a great deal of research on this, and was unable to come up with a consistent satisfactory answer from outside sources. Therefore, I asked for help from Penn State University Publications, who were kind enough to give me this helpful response:

"My editor and proofreader both agree that this one is tricky to sort out from the style manuals. This is what we recommend:

The possessive for the unit name should be Administrative Information Services' but the possessive for the acronym should be: AIS's. Whenever possible, you should reword to avoid the possessive of either the unit name or acronym. For example, instead of saying 'Administrative Information Services' policies', reword it to say 'the policies of Administrative Information Services'; instead of saying 'AIS's policies', reword it to say 'the policies of AIS'."

Hopefully this tip will help you all as much as it will for me in the weeks and months to come!

October 2007

Using Parentheses in Your Writing

Parentheses (along with commas, dashes, semi-colons, and so on) are a useful tool to break up long sentences which might otherwise overwhelm your reader. Parentheses are especially appropriate when you would like to give the impression of an aside (a brief statement addressing the reader personally); they can also be used to provide additional information or a brief explanation of an unfamiliar term.

e.g. "The attack on Pearl Harbor (as you may recall from your school days) was what spurred the U.S. to enter World War II."
e.g. "The beautiful and mysterious Loch (lake) Ness is an essential stop on any visit to northern Scotland."

Parentheses have other functions as well; for more information on parentheses and other punctuation, go to:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html
http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node38.html
http://www.grammarbook.com/punctuation/parens.asp
http://wsu.edu/~brians/errors/parentheses.html

August 2007

Assure vs. Ensure vs. Insure

While there is some debate over how picky one needs to be when using these close cousins, I believe that using each one with deliberation can make your writing much more clear.

Basically, the words assure, ensure and insure all mean the same thing: to guarantee or to promise that something is true or that something will happen. But there are slight differences between them:

Assure means to say or write the guarantee:

"He assured me that the product would be delivered tomorrow."

Ensure means to do something to make sure or guarantee that something happens:

"A firewall helps to ensure that hackers don't attack your PC.

Insure means to guarantee something with insurance or other financial instruments:

"In most countries you need to insure your car against accidents."

Source: http://englishinfocus1.googlepages.com/Assure_Ensure_Insure.htm

July 2007

Capitalization in Titles

This is an topic that many writers struggle with (myself included), so I went on a hunt to find some hard and fast guidelines of what words may be deemed worthy of capitalization in titles. Below is what I found:

Most writers are familiar with these general rules. But some have difficulty identifying the various parts of speech, while others have internalized incorrect "rules" taught in elementary school. These individuals are therefore prone to making mistakes when capitalizing or lowercasing words in titles. The most common mistakes are presented below.

Two-Letter Words
Some writers lowercase all two-letter words, probably by extrapolation from the short prepositions "of", "to", "up", and so on, and the word "to" in infinitives. But if a two-letter word is acting as a noun, pronoun, adjective, or adverb, it must be capitalized. For example:

Go Tell it on the Mountain
(wrong; "it" is a pronoun and should be capitalized)

When is a Spade a Spade?
(wrong; "is" is a verb and should be capitalized)

Multipurpose Words
Some writers lowercase words that can function as prepositions when those words are currently functioning in other capacities. For example:

The Man in the Moon Owns a Yellow Balloon
(correct; "in" is functioning as a preposition and should be lowercased)

Bringing in the Sheaves
(wrong; "in" is functioning as an adverb and should be capitalized)

Phrasal Verbs
Some writers find it hard to decide how to capitalize a title containing a phrasal verb. Phrasal verbs are verbs whose meaning is completed by a word called a particle. For example, the verb "to give" has a different meaning than the phrasal verb "to give up".

Like other multipurpose words, words functioning as particles must be distinguished from the same words functioning as prepositions. Particles are always capitalized because they form part of the verb. For example:

My Travels up Nova Scotia's South Shore
(correct; "up" is functioning as a preposition and should be lowercased)

Setting up Your Computer
(wrong; "up" is functioning as a particle and should be capitalized)

Source: NIVA, Inc. http://www.writersblock.ca/tips/monthtip/tipmar98.htm

June 2007

Latin Abbreviations

Latin abbreviations are sprinkled throughout texts we read everyday. However, the general consensus in modern formal writing is to avoid using them whenever possible. As the English language has excellent equivalents for nearly all of the common Latin phrases, these abbreviations should only be used when extreme brevity is necessary, such as in footnotes and bibliographies. In the examples below, English equivalents have been substituted for the Latin abbreviations e.g. and etc.

Many communication tools can be used to promote the launch of a new store; for example, flyers, press releases, radio announcements, and so on.

Central Africa was explored by Livingstone, Stanley and Brazza, among others.

Below is a list of some common Latin Abbreviations:

Abbreviation Latin English
cf. confer compare
e.g. exempli gratia for example
et al. et alii and others
etc. et cetera and so forth, and so on
i.e. id est that is
N.B. nota bene note well
P.S. post scriptum postscript

Be careful not to confuse "e.g." with "i.e."!

Punctuating these abbreviations properly requires that a comma be placed after the period in the abbreviation if it is not at the end of a sentence.

Several British universities were founded in the Victorian era; e.g., the University of Manchester was established in 1851.

May 2007

Affect vs. Effect

Affect and effect are two words that are commonly confused.

Affect is usually a verb meaning "to influence".

The drug did not affect the disease.

Effect is usually a noun meaning "result".

The drug has many adverse side effects.

Effect can also be used as a verb meaning "to bring about".

The present government effected many positive changes.

Sources: http://www.informatics.sussex.ac.uk/department/docs/punctuation/node28.html and http://www.writersblock.ca/tips/index.htm.

April 2007

How to Avoid Apostrophe Catastrophe

The apostrophe is used:

Apostrophes are NOT used for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals, including acronyms.

Forming possessives of nouns
To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:

the boy's hat = the hat of the boy
three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!

room of the hotel = hotel room
door of the car = car door
leg of the table = table leg

Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.

- add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):

the owner's car
James's hat

- add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:

the children's game
the geese's honking

- add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:

houses' roofs
three friends' letters

- add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:

Todd and Anne's apartment.

Showing Omission of Letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

  • don't = do not
  • I'm = I am
  • he'll = he will
  • who's = who is
  • shouldn't = should not
  • didn't = did not
  • could've = could have (NOT "could of"!)

Source: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_apost.html

March 2007

Making Lists - Consistency is the Name of the Game

Numbered, Vertical ("Display"), and Bulleted Lists

Writing and reference manuals offer several valid methods for creating lists. You can choose whichever method you prefer, as long as you are consistent within your document. You may choose to make run-in lists (built into the flow of your text) or vertical lists (indented and stacked up). When making a run-in list such as the one below, use parentheses around the numbers (no periods after the number, though).

I have three items to discuss: (1) the first item; (2) the second item; and (3) the third item.

Use semicolons to separate the items, whether they're expressed as fragments or full sentences.

For a vertical list (sometimes called a display list), you may choose to capitalize the items or not, and you may choose to put a comma after each item or not. (If you use commas, put a period after the last item.)

We will now review the following three principles:

  1. fairness in recruiting
  2. academic eligibility
  3. scholarly integrity

Your choice to capitalize or not may depend on how elaborate your lists are and how many of them you have in your text. If a vertical list contains complete sentences or lengthy and complex items, you may prefer to end each element in the list with a semicolon, except for the last element, which you will end with a period.

Most coaches conform to three basic principles in recruiting:

  1. Look for players first who can fill those positions you will need the subsequent year;
  2. Look for players who are "court smart" as opposed to being merely athletic;
  3. Look for players who are academically eligible and who have an academic purpose in going to college.

Although the elements in the list above begin with capital letters, that is not absolutely necessary. Notice that there is no "and" at the end of the next-to-last element (although some reference manuals allow for or recommend its use). Although we have used numbers for this list, bullets would work equally well if numbering seems inappropriate or irrelevant. The list below is based on a format suggested by the New York Public Library's Writer's Guide to Style and Usage:

Most coaches conform to three basic principles in recruiting:

  • Look for players first who can fill those positions you will need the subsequent year
  • Look for players who are "court-smart" as opposed to being merely athletic
  • Look for players who are academically eligible and who have an academic purpose in going to college

Note that this format does not include a period even at the end of the last element. Most writers, however, want to use some kind of punctuation in their listed items. When the introductory statement is a complete sentence, you can end it with either a period or a colon. Use a colon if the sentence is clearly anticipatory of the list, especially if it contains phrasing such as the following or as follows. A colon is also appropriate if the list that follows will be numbered or will establish a priority order. If the introductory statement is not a complete statement, however, neither a period nor a colon would be appropriate since that would interrupt the grammatical structure of the statement; use either no punctuation or try the dash technique noted above.

For more information regarding proper usage of lists in your writing, go to http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/numbers.htm.

February 2007

How to Use a Semicolon for More than Just a Winking Emoticon ;-)

The Semicolon

The semicolon indicates a longer pause than a comma and a shorter pause than a period. It can be used between two closely-related clauses that could potentially be separate sentences. The semicolon should also be used between clauses when one or both contains a comma.

Example of closely-related clauses:

Sam broke the pitcher in a fit of anger; he knew he would never make lemonade again.

Example of clauses containing commas:

This summer I swam in the pool, so I could develop my coordination; I rode my bike, which built up my leg strength; and I watched cartoons every Saturday morning.

January 2007

Stop, Hey, What's That Sound, Everybody Put Your Pencils Down...

If it's before a vowel, use "an"; if it's before a consonant, use "a", right? Right! Er...well, sometimes. Read on to get a grasp on these slippery little articles, and why a word's sound is often more important than its appearance.

The Right Time to Use "An" or "A" in Your Writing

A and an signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These indefinite articles are used with singular nouns when the noun is general; the corresponding indefinite quantity word some is used for plural general nouns. The rule is:

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy

an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant

a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used)

some + plural noun: some girls

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

a broken egg

an unusual problem

a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Note also that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a profession, nation, or religion.

I am a teacher.

Brian is an Irishman.

Seiko is a practicing Buddhist.

For more fun with definite and indefinite articles, read the full article provided by the Purdue University Online Writing Lab at: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/esl/eslart.html